World Happiness Report 2023 117 As is the case for altruism’s effects on beneficiaries, the effects of altruism may also vary as a function of the relationship between the altruistic actor and the beneficiary. When the type of altruism is held constant, helping close others may be more beneficial for well-being, as well-being is more reliably elevated when people help others with whom they have stronger versus weaker ties.64 However, the fact that altruism for close others is more likely to be planned and formal may make its real-world effects on well-being weaker, as informal helping (versus formal helping) is generally linked to greater well-being.65 Altruism’s effects on the well-being of altruists also tend to be greater when helping is autonomous and voluntary rather than obligatory.66 In one study of daily helping, participants only reported greater well-being when they helped by choice rather than because they were required to. This is because helping by choice had the greatest positive effect on feelings of autonomy, social connectedness, and competence, in accordance with theories of self-determination.67 These findings might appear to conflict with studies in which participants who are randomly assigned to help others by researchers nonetheless report increased well-being.68 However, in such studies, the choice of how and whom participants help is left up to them, which may preserve the beneficial effects of altruism as an autonomous choice.69 The fact that altruism that is freely chosen is more strongly linked to well-being may help to explain why the positive relationship between altruism and well-being tends to be strongest in individualistic cultures,70 in which helping may be more often construed as an autonomous voluntary choice, rather than an obligation. Finally, whether altruism benefits altruists’ well-being may depend on various demographic features. One meta-analysis found that younger altruists experience higher levels of well-being relative to older altruists, perhaps because altruism in younger adults is more likely to result in durable changes in self-concept and feelings of personal growth.71 Women may also benefit more than men from acting altruistically, as research suggests that helping is more positively associated with eudaimonic well-being, social relations, and physical health in women than in men.72 Effects of Altruism on Third Parties’ Well-Being The positive effects of altruism on well-being may not be limited to the altruist and the beneficiary, but might also extend to third parties, such as those who observe an act of altruism or who are part of the social network of either altruists or beneficiaries. Relatively little research has explored this question. However, some evidence suggests that simply witnessing acts of altruism promotes well-being. For example, observing altruism has been found to result in what is termed “moral elevation,” which reflects extreme elevation in mood, increased energy, desire for affiliation, the motivation to do good things for other people, and the desire to become a better person.73 Observing altruistic acts, or even learning about them from others, may also influence observers to be more altruistic in their future interactions.74 People may update their beliefs about normative behaviors when observing others’ altruism and, as a result, may adopt more altruistic norms in the future.75 Frequently observing altruistic acts may thus yield more positive beliefs about human nature and build interpersonal trust. By contrast, people may adopt more cynical beliefs after observing antagonistic interactions.76 Under some circumstances, observing others’ altruistic behavior may lead to negative outcomes, particularly when the altruistic act is perceived as strongly non-normative. Witnessing others deviating, even generously, from norms such as equity can result in negative affect,77 perhaps by making observers feel worse about themselves. This may lead to “do-gooder derogation”, in which altruistic actors are perceived more Helping others—including giving them money, blood, or other kinds of assistance—nonetheless reliably causes increased subjective well-being, with consistently small-to-medium effect sizes.
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