World Happiness Report 2023 72 34 See, for example, Table 2.3 in World Happiness Report 2020. 35 See several chapters of World Happiness Report 2018, and Helliwell, Shiplett and Bonikowska (2020). 36 See Fraser and Aldrich (2020) and Bartscher et al. (2021) for national and regional evidence. Using a large global set of countries and data from the first year of the pandemic, Besley and Dray (2021) find that COVID-19 death rates in 2020 were lower in countries where respondents had greater confidence in their governments. 37 See Helliwell et al. (2018) and Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 of World Happiness Report 2020. 38 See Aldrich (2011). 39 See Yamamura et al. (2015) and Dussaillant and Guzmán (2014). 40 See Toya and Skidmore (2014) and Dussaillant and Guzmán (2014). 41 See Kang and Skidmore (2018). 42 See Figure 2.4 in Chapter 2 of World Happiness Report 2021. 43 Fraser and Aldrich (2020), looking across Japanese prefectures, found that those with greater social connections initially had higher rates of infection, but as time passed they had lower rates. Bartscher et al. (2021) use within- country variations in social capital in several European countries to show that regions with higher social capital had fewer COVID-19 cases per capita. Wu (2021) finds that trust and norms are important in influencing COVID-19 responses at the individual level, while in authoritarian contexts compliance depends more on trust in political institutions and less on interpersonal trust. 44 See COVID-19 National Preparedness Collaborative (2022). 45 See Rothstein and Uslaner (2005). 46 This mortality risk variable is the ratio of an indirectly standardized death rate to the crude death rate, done separately for each of 154 countries. The indirect standardization is based on interacting the US age-sex mortality pattern for COVID-19 with each country’s overall death rate and its population age and sex composition. Data from Heuveline and Tzen (2021). Our procedure is described more fully in Statistical Appendix 2 of World Happiness Report 2021. 47 See World Health Organization (2017). 48 An earlier version of this model was explained more fully and first applied in chapter 2 of World Happiness Report 2021. In the 2021 report we also used a second SARS-related variable based on the average distance between each country and each of the six countries or regions most heavily affected by SARS (China mainland, Hong Kong SAR, Canada, Vietnam, Singapore, and Taiwan). The two variables are sufficiently highly correlated that we can simplify this year’s application by using just the WHOWPR variable, as has also been done in other research investigating the success of alternative COVID-19 strategies. See Helliwell et al. (2021) and Aknin et al. (2022). 49 See Statistical Appendix 2 of Chapter 2 of World Happiness Report 2021, and Helliwell et al. (2021) for a later application making use of the same mortality risk variable we are using here. 50 There is experimental evidence that chess players at all levels of expertise are subject to the Einstellung (or set-point) effect, which limits their search for better solutions. The implications extend far beyond chess. See Bilalic and McLeod (2014) and also Rosella et al. (2013). 51 See Emery et al. (2020), Gandhi et al. (2020), Li et al. (2020), Savvides et al. (2020), and Yu and Yang (2020). 52 See Wei et al. (2020), Savvides et al. (2020), and Moghadas et al. (220). 53 See, for example, Godri Pollitt et al. (2020), Setti et al. (2020), and Wang & Du (2020). 54 S ee Chernozhukov et al. (2021) for causal estimates from US state data, Ollila et al. (2020) for a meta-analysis of controlled trials, and Miyazawa and Kaneko (2020) for cross-country analysis of the effectiveness of masks. 55 See Louie et al. (2021). 56 For an early community example from Italy, see Lavezzo et al. (2020). 57 See Mahase (2021) for a discussion of the emergence of early variants. 58 R odrigo Furst has kindly used the latest data from the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (Hale et al., 2021) to show that at the beginning of 2022, regional average stringency scores ranged from 40-60 out of 100 among their six global regions, while by the end of the year the range had fallen to 15-20. 59 See Aknin et al. (2022). The policy stringency measures are from Hale et al. (2021) 60 China then faced correspondingly larger infections when the elimination strategy was no longer feasible. See Yu et al (2022). On a smaller scale, Hong Kong, another eliminator overcome by Omicron, faced similar problems. See Ma & Parry (2022). 61 S ee Wang et al (2022) for a review of evidence showing reduced case fatality rates under Omicron. 62 Kislaya et al. (2022) show continuing vaccine effectiveness under Omicron, while Lyke et al (2022) find rapid decline in vaccine-boosted neutralizing antibodies against SARSCoV-2 Omicron variant. 63 When a version of Panel B of Figure 2.5 is used to compare total directly reported COVID-19 deaths in 2020-2021 with all-cause excess deaths for the same years, the results are very similar for the four country groups at the left hand side of the Figure. These are all countries with relatively high quality measurements for both direct COVID-19 deaths and all-cause excess death rates. For the rest of the world, excess death rates, where they are available, appear to be significantly higher than the report COVID-19 death rates. 64 See Claeson and Hanson (2021). 65 See Aknin et al. (2022).
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